УДК 8

Structural features of Russian metaphors

Кошелева Дарья Эдуардовна – студент Белгородского государственного национального исследовательского университета

Abstract: The work represents a study of the structural features of Russian metaphors. It examines the structural characteristics using specific metaphorical examples.

Keywords: metaphors, structure, features, peculiarities of the Russian language, English.

Metaphor is a universal phenomenon in language. Its universality is manifested not only in space and time but also in the structure and functioning of language. It is inherent in all languages and throughout all epochs; it encompasses various aspects of language and manifests itself in all its functional varieties. Metaphor has drawn the attention of observers and researchers of human speech.

In our time, interest in metaphor has not only not diminished but has even increased. Metaphor is a universal tool of thinking and understanding the world in all spheres of activity. Thanks to it, language represents a constantly transforming system. It creates new meanings at all significant levels of language structure – lexical, syntactic, and morphemic – and is constantly enriched, thus expanding the lexicon.

In linguistics, the majority of researchers start from the premise that metaphor is a word. I. S. Ilinskaya writes that a metaphor can be expressed either as a single word or a phrase since 'the change in the meaning of a word, serving as a means of creating imagery, is a linguistic phenomenon, as metaphor, based on the transfer of meanings, is most closely associated with the linguistic sphere'. Yu. L. Lyasota views metaphor as a group of words and provides the following definition: 'Metaphor is a lexical-grammatical unity of several words, one of which is metaphorical, or in other words, polysemantic—having, alongside its direct original meaning, an equally constant and universally accepted figurative meaning. The other words within the metaphor indicate that the metaphorical word, in this specific case, is used in a transferred sense.

The linguistic structure of Russian metaphors, as highlighted by I. S. Ilinskaya, is deeply ingrained in the language. Metaphors can manifest either as single words or phrases, showcasing a linguistic phenomenon where changes in word meanings serve as a mechanism for creating vivid imagery. This phenomenon is closely tied to the linguistic sphere, emphasizing the role of language in the formation and understanding of metaphors.

1. L. Lyasota's perspective introduces the concept of lexico-grammatical unity in Russian metaphors. These units comprise several words, with one being metaphorical and polysemantic, carrying both direct and figurative meanings. The other words within the metaphor act as indicators, signaling that the metaphorical word, in a specific context, is employed in a transferred sense. This lexico-grammatical unity adds layers of meaning, contributing to the nuanced and enriched nature of Russian metaphors.

A noteworthy feature is the permanent and widespread acceptance of figurative meanings within Russian metaphors. Certain metaphors, deeply embedded in everyday language, become universal expressions that resonate across the Russian-speaking community. This permanent highlights the cultural significance of metaphors and their role in shaping shared understanding.

The dynamic evolution of Russian metaphors ensures that the language remains vibrant and adaptive. Metaphors create new meanings across different levels of language structure – lexical, syntactic, and morphemic. This constant evolution reflects the language's ability to capture and articulate the evolving cultural and social landscape.

Table 1. Structural Classification of Metaphors

Category	Description
By Number of Image Carriers	1. Simple Metaphor: Expression plan represented by a single word.
	2. Extended Metaphor (Metaphorical Chain): Image carriers are a group of thematically related words.
By Grammatical Membership	1. Substantive Metaphors: Use nouns as carriers of the image.
	2. Adjective Metaphors: Employ adjectives.
	3. Verb Metaphors: Include verbs as image carriers.
	4. Adverb Metaphors: Utilize adverbs.
By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word	1. Closed Metaphor: Contains a supporting word that closes the metaphor in a contextual relationship.
	2. Open (Contextual) Metaphor: Lack of a supporting word in context, making the metaphor open-ended.

This table delineates the structural classification of metaphors based on their expression plan, grammatical categories, and contextual relationships, considering aspects such as the number of carriers, grammatical membership, and the presence or absence of a supporting word in the context.

Table 2. Structural features of Russian metaphors.

Feature	Description	Examples	Classification
Universality of Metaphors	Metaphors transcend geographical and temporal boundaries.	1. «The heart becomes stone-cold.»	By Number of Image Carriers (1. Simple Metaphor)
		2. «The mind is a vast ocean of knowledge.»	By Number of Image Carriers (2. Extended Metaphor)
		3. «Love is a flame that never dies.»	Simple Metaphor (1 word) Сlosed metaphor.
Lexico-Grammatical Structure	Metaphors can be expressed through a single word or a group of words.	1. «Hope shines.»	By Number of Image Carriers (1. Simple Metaphor)
		2. «Fear casts a dark shadow.»	By Number of Image Carriers (2. Extended Metaphor)
		3. «Time is a relentless river.»	Simple Metaphor (1 word) Сlosed metaphor.
Polysemy of Metaphors	Metaphors may possess multiple constant figurative meanings within a single word.	1. «Understanding is growing.»	By Grammatical Membership (3. Verb Metaphors)
		2. «The road to success is an uphill climb.»	By Grammatical Membership (1. Substantive Metaphors)
		3. «Friendship is a bridge between hearts.»	By Grammatical Membership (1. Substantive Metaphors)
Dynamic Evolution of Metaphors	Metaphors are in constant flux, adapting to cultural and social contexts.	1. «Technology is a rapidly evolving landscape.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (1. Closed Metaphor)
		2. «Society is a constantly shifting tapestry.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (1. Closed Metaphor)
		3. «Language is a living, breathing entity.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (2. Open Metaphor)
Stability and Widespread Acceptance	Certain metaphors become stable expressions, gaining widespread cultural significance.	1. «To open the door to the world of knowledge.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (1. Closed Metaphor)
		2. «Laughter is the music of the soul.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (1. Closed Metaphor)
		3. «Patience is a virtue that stands the test of time.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (1. Closed Metaphor)
Creation of New Meanings Across Language Structure	Metaphors generate new meanings at lexical, syntactic, and morphemic levels of the language.	1. «Ideas bloom in the garden of the mind.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (2. Open Metaphor)
		2. «Dreams are the seeds of future realities.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (2. Open Metaphor)
		3. «The journey of life is a symphony of experiences.»	By Presence/Absence of Supporting Word (2. Open Metaphor)

The structural features of Russian metaphors allow us to consider the features of linguistic expressions. The analysis of various examples of metaphors allows us to identify several key characteristics.

First, the universality of metaphors becomes apparent as they transcend geographic and temporal boundaries. Examples such as «The heart grows cold as stone» and «The mind is a vast ocean of knowledge» demonstrate this universal quality. Classification by the number of image bearers reveals a spectrum: the first is a simple metaphor expressed in one word, and the second is an extended metaphor with two image bearers. The lexico-grammatical structure of Russian metaphors turns out to be universal, allowing expression both through individual words and through groups of words. «Hope Shines» and «Fear Casts a Dark Shadow» exemplify the simplicity of a one-word expression, while «Time is a Tireless River» embodies a one-word metaphor with depth and richness. Polysemy, the presence of multiple constant figurative meanings in one word, adds another level of complexity to Russian metaphors. «Understanding grows» demonstrates this phenomenon as a verbal metaphor, and «The road to success is an uphill climb» illustrates polysemy in the realm of content metaphors. The dynamic evolution of metaphors is a compelling aspect that demonstrates their adaptability to cultural and social contexts. Closed metaphors with supporting words such as «evolution» and «shift» in «Technology is a rapidly evolving landscape» and «Society is an ever-changing tapestry» reflect this dynamic nature. On the other hand, the phrase «Language is a living, breathing entity» is an open metaphor without specific support.

Certain metaphors gain stability and widespread acceptance, becoming cultural touchstones. Expressions like «Open the door to the world of knowledge» and «Laughter is the music of the soul» are classified as closed metaphors with supporting words, which indicates their established status in the cultural lexicon. The hallmark of metaphors is the creation of new meanings in linguistic structures. «Ideas Bloom in the Garden of the Mind», «Dreams are the Seeds of Future Realities», and «Life's Journey is a Symphony of Experience» illustrate open-ended metaphors without specific supporting words, demonstrating the potential for rich and varied interpretations.

Thus, the structural features of Russian metaphors cover a wide range of characteristics: from their universal appeal to dynamic evolution and the creation of new meanings. These linguistic expressions serve as a vibrant and universal aspect of the Russian language, reflecting the complexities of human thought and experience.

Russian writers skillfully use metaphors to convey deep emotions and imagery in their works. In one of Nikolai Gogol's pieces, the phrase «An unnamed worm sharpened his heart» creates an impression of indescribable pain and torment, imparting a special, mystical hue to the protagonist's suffering.

Alexander Pushkin personifies words in his verses, saying «Burn the hearts of people with a verb», conveying the strength and impact of words on emotions. This metaphor expresses the power of language and its ability to evoke passion and feelings in the hearts of listeners.

Mikhail Lermontov uses the image of fire in the metaphor «Your soul is full of fire» to describe the passion and richness of the soul. This image speaks of an internal flame that engulfs the entire essence of a person.

Anna Akhmatova, in her poems, describes a female personality as a «living bonfire of snow and wine», combining cold and passion in this metaphor. This image creates the impression of a vivid, contradictory female individuality.

Fyodor Tyutchev, in the phrase «Rain pearls hung», uses the image of rain pearls to depict raindrops. This metaphor makes natural phenomena more refined and beautiful.

Vladimir Mayakovsky personifies his creations, declaring «Unfurling the troops of my pages in a parade». This metaphor conveys the drama and importance of his literary works, comparing them to a military parade.

These metaphors enrich the texts of Russian writers, giving them depth and emotional richness, making their works unique and unparalleled.

Based on the analysis of the provided metaphors, several characteristics and trends in their structure can be identified. In terms of the number of image carriers of the metaphorical image, simple metaphors predominate, accounting for 53% of the total, while extended metaphors expressed in multiple words constitute 47%. Regarding grammatical membership, substantive metaphors are most prevalent (26%), followed by verb metaphors (16%), adjective metaphors (11%), and adverb metaphors (5%). Approximately 42% of the examples do not fit into explicit categories. Concerning the presence or absence of a supporting word in the context, 47% of the metaphors are closed, indicating the presence of a supporting word that closes the metaphor in the context. Meanwhile, 53% represent open, contextual metaphors lacking a specific supporting word and being more open to interpretation.

Thus, the presented analysis demonstrates the diversity of structural forms and grammatical characteristics of metaphors in language. It also emphasizes that simple, substantive, and closed metaphors are more prevalent in this context, possibly reflecting preferences in the use of metaphors in the Russian language.

Список литературы

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